Post devolution, do separate or dual identities exist in England and Dissertation

Post devolution, do separate or dual identities exist in England and Britain - Dissertation Example Such assumptions were based on the esoteric understandings of the two labels, British and English, and tended to affect the framing of the concept of a so called national identity that were based on territorial differentiation and the respective identities, nature of citizenship, and social inclusion. The nationalistic identity of any state which is dependent on its socio-political characteristics, may go through various transformations (like devolution); and under pressures from the changed local, political, and social conditions, may undergo differentiation. Under changed circumstances the nationalistic identity of ‘Britishness’ may take a back seat, with the regional identity of ‘Englishness,’ eclipsing the former. ... The Existence of Separate or Dual Identities in England and Britain post devolution period 1 Introduction 1.1 Background History â€Å"The history of England [is] not in England but in America and Asia† J.R. Seele Since 1997, United Kingdom has been undergoing devolution as regards to its 4 member states, England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. England has been ‘eventually promised’ a new and ‘Greater London Authority,’ with a separate and Assembly and mayor, while separate regionally elected assemblies are also on the annals for England; while the remaining 3 states have been given varying degrees of autonomy in their assemblies. Thus this entire process of devolution spells out into new territorial contours within the realms of United Kingdom. A look at the history shows us that Britain did not quite have a homogenous nature right from the time of its conception, and the then British foreign secretary Robin Cook, ascertained that the concept of this â€Å"homogeneity of British identity that some people assume to be the norm was confined to a relatively brief period. It lasted from the Victorian era of imperial expansion to the aftermath of the Second World War...The diversity of modern Britain expressed through devolution and multiculturalism is more consistent with the historical experience of our islands† (Cook, 2001). The topic or concept of ‘British,’ after being reviewed by various experts has been found to consist of a large and gaping conceptual void (Kumar, 2000, 576). Historical records, in general, are found aplenty, starting with political, constitutional, social, and economic histories of England, yet there has

PEST Analysis on Deodorant market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

PEST Analysis on Deodorant market - Essay Example This in turn influences the prices they are to be charged in the market. For example if the import duty imposed on the deodorant is high, this means they will be charged at high prices hence their demand will be low. On the other hand, if the custom taxed charged on them is low, it means that they will be charged less in the market hence they demand will be high thereby increase the sales. 1 On the other hand, economic factors greatly influence deodorant market in that during inflation deodorants are charged more in the market hence they become unpopular to the consumers. At this time, the purchasing power of the consumers is greatly affect and the only money they have, they spend it to buy necessities and not things like deodorants. This in turn affects the deodorant sales. 2 Unemployment is another factor that affects deodorant market. The whole world today is greatly affected by unemployment and there as so many young energetic people in the world that ought to be working and there are no employment opportunities for them. For this case, they are not salaried; hence they have nothing to spend to buy anything like cosmetics. Due to this, the sales of deodorant go down since those people who ought to be buying these deodorants have no purchasing power at all. 3 Deodorant market is also affected by socio cultural environmental factors that greatly affect their demand in

Harlem Renaissance Essay Example for Free

Harlem Renaissance Essay The Harlem Renaissance was a significant event in the history of the United States of America. The Harlem Renaissance centered on the culture of African-Americans and took place at the end of the American Civil War in 1865. This era gave rise to music, art, and literature in African-American culture. Winning the Civil War meant that African American were now free and could, at their risk, go anywhere they wanted. This is when the Great Migration all started. The Great Migration was when large groups of blacks moved in Northern cities like Chicago and New York in massive numbers for jobs because the South had been victim to a crop infestation. Many of them moved particularly to a large neighborhood located in the northern section of Manhattan called Harlem, also known as â€Å"the capital of black America†. By this time, chances for employment and education were available for African-Americans, and many of them expected the same treatment and life the white Americans had be given. This was not to be the case when Plessy v. Ferguson case went to the Supreme Court and the decision had been held that racial segregation was â€Å"constitutionally acceptable†. African-Americans were heartbroken; they wanted equality and all they had been given nothing close to the life of the white Americans, not even a secure environment to live. Though they did have some rights, such as, all African-American men could vote, African-Americans, all, could receive better education, and they got better jobs, but that still seemed to be not enough. African-Americans wanted to part ways with their clingy stereotypes and define themselves as something better. They wanted to be something more than just a â€Å"negro.† The African-Americans didn’t want to be like their white suppressors, but wanted to create a new meaning to what it meant to be black. Starting in the early 1900s the African-American middle class started a push towards racial equality. W.E.B. Du Bois was the central leader of the movement. He collaborated with other African-American activists and white civil rights workers in New York to review the difficult challenges facing the African-American population. 1909 the NAACP, or National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, was found by the group working with Du Bois. This group was specifically organized to advocate civil liberties and fight for African-American rights. Although this cause was thought to be supported by all African-Americans it was not the case with Jamaica-bred Marcus Garvey. Garvey started the â€Å"Back to Africa movement,† which initially was him saying that he thought all African-Americans should just pack up and leave the states because they weren’t welcomed. Garvey founded the UNIA-ACL, or Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League, which promoted the â€Å"Back to Africa† slogan. Garvey said it was to encourage African-Americans to come together and feel pride in their roots. These groups, although not all supporting staying and fighting, helped the African-American population develop a sense of empowerment for African-Americans everywhere. The Jazz Age was an explosion of African-American culture into music. Just at the end of WWI, there was an economy boost and a change in society. During this time Americans started to relax and take up hobbies. The Prohibition had just been ratified, although it didn’t ban alcohol it made it extremely difficult to get, legally. That is when alcohol clubs, called â€Å"speakeasies† were created. â€Å"Speakeasies† gave Americans the chance to socialize with other, engage in drinking, and go against traditional culture. Some might have even called them Modernist. There was a certain speakeasy in Harlem called the Cotton Club. It’s them as the look of a plantation in the South. They only allowed African-American musicians to play there and only allowed white Americans, with some exceptions, wine and dine there. One talented jazz musician would be Duke Ellington. Ellington was a wiz at playing the piano; he actually played at the Cotton Club from for four years. His band stomped to theatricality routines in numerous shows. Forms of art gave some African-Americans a break from reality. Artists painted things from African-American nightclubs, to African-American toiling in the fields. Aaron Douglas was a famous artist whose work exercised the ‘New Negro’ idea. The ‘New Negro’ idea correlated with Dubois idea of â€Å"twoness† idea, which meant the finding of one’s individuality with a divided awareness of one’s identity. Douglas painted murals, building, and created illustrations for many African-American books. In 1940 Douglas moved to Nashville and founded the Art Department at Fisk University and taught for twenty nine years there. Douglas said, â€Å"Our problem is to conceive, develop, establish an art era. Not white art painting blacklets bare our arms and plunge them deep through laughter, through pain, through sorrow, through hope, through disappointment, into the very depths of the souls of our people and drag forth material crude, rough, neglected . Then lets sing it, dance it, write it, paint it. Lets do the impossible. Lets create something transcendentally material, mystically objective. Earthy. Spiritually earthy. Dynamic, which means, let’s make something incredible out of tragedy. Writing also became a major step forward in the Harlem Renaissance, especially since during this time most African-Americans were illiterate. African-American writers talked about the past of black culture. They wrote about slavery and the effects it had on society today, etc. Common themes of these books ranged from alienation, to wanting to be individual. The most famous African-American writers include: Langston Hughes, Sterling Brown, and Zora Neale Hurston, just to name a few. Zora Neale was a novelist, folklorist, and anthropologist. She believed in the motto, â€Å"I want a busy life, a just mind, and a timely end.† Zora wrote to preserve African-American traditions and to contribute to new literature. Langston Hughes was a writer who collaborated with Hurston and other artists in his book of poetry entitled The Weary Blues. Hughes also wrote an essay called â€Å"The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain,† where he told people what he saw as ‘mountains’ facing African-American writers. In his essay, Hughes mentions a young poet he spoke to and says how the poet wanted to be known as a poet, rather than a â€Å"Negro poet,† which is clearly understandable since there was still racial tension during this time. In conclusion, the Harlem Renaissance was a major event in the history in the United States of America because it brought a culture together using simple things, like music, art, and literature. If it had not been for the Harlem Renaissance, who knows what might’ve happened to the African-American culture, where it might’ve been at this point in time without the occurrence of the Harlem Renaissance. It brought together a race that has, over the years, been beaten, cursed at, talked about, and slaughtered for the comfort of others, and just a simple melody of a song was able to bring them closer together after being ripped apart.

Factors Affecting Millennium Development Goals Progress

Factors Affecting Millennium Development Goals Progress Abstract Water and sanitation is a global canker facing the most world population especially in Africa. Policy makers anticipate 80 billion Euros are needed every year to provide basic sanitation to the rural poor to ease poverty, therefore the need to get an in depth view of sanitation lagging behind is paramount. This paper aims to assess the factors causing the slow of progress in achieving the Millennium Development Goals(MDG) in low-income countries. The pace are due to inadequate infrastructure systems, skilled labour constraints, insufficient political will and growth of population. It will review current studies in the sector and analyse various constraints that jeopardise the achievement of the sanitation development precisely Ghana. In this review article, published journals, reports, conferences are observed. As a results of the above review factors that is hampering MDG sanitation for Goal 7, it was concluded that policy framework should be put in place whereas government and dono r organisations enforced and invest more in sanitation. The research should assist in the development process in an optimised way of addressing water and sanitation issues and allow better understanding of environmental differing that is triggering the success of MDGs. Keywords Millennium Development Goals ; Ghana; Factors affecting water and sanitation development 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Currently, 2.6 billion people in the world has no access to adequate sanitation(Marion W.jenkins ,2007) and 1.1 billion lack safe drinking water . (Water Aid,2008)representing to two fifth of the world population, leading up to range of diseases like cholera, a devastating cause of child deaths(Marion W. 2007). In Asia 675 million people are without improved drinking water sources and in sub-Sahara Africa, only 36% has no access to basic sanitation (Christine L. And Richard D.2006).The ability of low-income countries to productively solicit external support to scale –up aid is the major confronting issue today. As vast number of international organisations on the verged to address the problem in developing world whiles envisaging the need for every humanity to have access to basic sanitation, Ghana as part of the sub Saharan Africa will not be able to achieve the MDGs (DFID,2006). UNICEF The World Summit on Sustainable Development(WSSD) in Johannesburg in 2002 adopted an international sanitation target to halve the number of people without access to basic sanitation by 2015.This target now transform its self for water supply in support of the Millennium Development Goal of ensuring environmental sustainability(WELL,2003). Considering figures above, indicates the progress and geographic areas of where water and sanitation has covered as of the year 2002.The enormity of the constraints comes with the acknowledgement that poor state of infrastructure impediments are the cause of not achieving the MDGs(refer to appendix2 ) because 50% of the population cannot access improved services serving as an issue(Antonio E.2005), (UN,2007).William Easterly,2008 argued that the MDG are unfair to Africa because MDGs are poorly and arbitrarily designed to measure progress against poverty and deprivation, and that their design makes Africa looks worse than it really was. Most importan tly, another article stated the need for external donors to increase funding although infrastructure systems is another challenging(hlsp, 2009).Contrary the (UNDP,2008) report reveal that lack of framework made monitory difficult to measure and therefore data availability in other cases was unpredictable for the reason been poor system of infrastructure in some countries for collecting appropriate statistics. Empirically, programmes in sanitation in developing countries has been fruitful and yielding results (Marion W. Jenkins and Beth Scott,2007) yet there is an overwhelming number of people who keep on installing latrines or toilet facilities in their homes without subsidy from donors to improved sanitation. Moreover, the global climate change that policy makers have been preaching, the impact in Africa where water crisis is escalating and water table been high especially in the region of Tamale where is terribly hard to drill a sunken borehole a get water even if there is then is possible it may contained 40% of salt(REVSODEP/SIMAVI,2003). Other studies have shown that climate change is a challenge to the success of the MDG(United Nations Economic and social council,2007). A number of studies have reported MDG trend progress of sanitation in Ghana as shown in (appendix1 and appendix 5) shows a series of attainable indicators how Ghana is progressing even though comments regarding poor infrastructure systems exist (Christine L. And Richard D.,2006) which tends to propel the success of sanitation projects in the developing nations . Similar findings have been made via (UN ,2006)department of economic and social affairs. However, most of these studies were based on different country orientations and gross domestic product(GDP) performance raised at the time the survey was made. As such, Aid scaling –up(Peter S.Heller,2005) to the overriding . International Journal on environment resource public health in Zambia 2006 found that lack of well staffed healt h care facilities, electricity, portable water, roads, adequate transportation and communication facilities contributed immensely to not meeting the sanitation target quiet apart from the political instability of other African region. This analysis is similar to less development of in local and national institutions in south Africa(Neville,G.2003) although south Africa is progressing well as compare to Ghana and others. The following Other objectives will enable us dig out further factors. To make a literature review of MDG in sanitation and evaluate current technology options used. Identify factors seen in other studies. To develop, discuss and analyse data. Make recommendations/strategy for promoting sanitation development. 1.2 Ghana The republic of Ghana is a country in west Africa with a population of about 22.1 million people(iicd,2007).The country was the first sub-saharan Africa country to obtain independence from colonial rules on the 6th of march 1957.Despite the country rich in natural resources such as cocoa, gold, timber, bauxite, salt and lately the discovered crude oil, the country is still in perennial sunk with water and sanitation diseases. After colonial rule the country is divided into 10 different regions which include, Northern region-Tamale, Bolgatanga, upper west region, Ashanti region, Volta region, Brong ahafo region, Central region, Eastern region, Greater Accra and western region(see appendix8) . In Ghana rural population who have access to safe water in 2005 stood at 54%, rural population with access to household latrine 25%, urban population with access to safe water 78% whiles 45% of urban citizens can boost of household latrine(WELL,2004). 2. Skilled labour constraints It has been observed that for the Millennium Development Goal to achieve the set target in the sector of water and sanitation the human resources are vital. Shortages of skilled persons (World bank report,2005), (Lancet,2004)affect the health systems as indicative to progress of the MDGs.Erica User in 2005 indicated that international migration is associated with the non achievement of the MDG which seems to be increasing alarming and no resourceful person to deliver sustained latrines. The general conception that the success of MDG 2015 will be met only when african government invest more in sanitation(Arne B. And Abebe S. 2006) than they do now can be in approperiate in some countries without the necessary manpower skill needed. Conventionally, it will also interest the international community to realiseing the poverty nature in developing countries are more than the recoarse (IWA,2008)and therefore should be examine in different perspective way, progress has been hampered by popul ation growth, unbattled HIV/AIDS, wide spread poverty.The view supported by working policy No.45 of (Goerge Essegbey et al 2007) who discovered that innovation in water and sanitation systems were made but was beyond the capacity of of the local people. Unlike in Kumasi a population of 19% of Ghana population census 2000 where technical drawings were made by a consultants for a contractor to implement the work and due to lack of skills required to execute the Ventilated improvement project with respect to the design specifications ,errors were degenerated due to the fact that local people incorporated bamboo sticks in the facility leading to unsuccessful work done. Comparing the situation in Asia to Ghana,(Ljiljana and Ram,2006) in 32nd WEDC international conference in Sri lanka vividly said institutional capacity building can been noticed as the most hindering factor for MDGs. Professional such as engineers who are knowlegeable, skillful and are suppose to assist Non governmental o rganisation and community based organisations in advocating and trainning the latter were seen non available. Again, sanitation projects were constructed in Nepal as shown in the figure3 below similarly described by (JMP ,2008)is a latrine constructed without a slab cover can be considered unimproved. The latrine was contracted to unskilled contractor without the trainee. Moreover, (Maguire,1990) arguable said Lack of knowledge of lower cost technologies and use of technologies in appropriate for developing countries was given in 1988 as one of the obstacles to decade success. 3. Political will Some studies have shown knowledgeablly that lack of political (appendix 11) williness contributed to the slow progress of water and sanitation development in the south(Trocaire,2005),(IWA,2006), (macho ventura,2008). In Ghana for example,Rural areas and small towns had benefited from cross-subsides on water made possible higher tariffs in larger urban areas. But in preparing for privatisation, the government has eliminated such subsidisation by separating out the more lucrative urban water services. This jeopardised the financial sustainability of rural services(UNDP,2007) policy research brief illustrated. On the other hand, this was been carried due to two or more reasons after the implementation of the scheme and as developing change comeby some policy of government will need to change in order not to cause future catastrophe in the long run. Although Subsides need to be provided in oder to promote equitable access to utility services. Some utilitties have introduce life line tari ffs in which minimal levels of utility services are provided free or at a low cost. Essentially, the UNSGAB,2008 undeniably illustrate that 12% of sub-saharan africa national health budget is spend only in providing sanitation and related health services and 50% of the hospital beds are occupied for the same reason. However, experts predicts by 2015 2.1 billion people will still lack sanitation especially in sub-sahara africa untill 2076 (ENS,2008) news. In contrast, some sub saharan African leaders invest a lot of funds in the area of infrastructure and services in water and sanitation primarily into public sectors with other development partners even though these funds are decreasing for various reasons and the share commercial is financing is still very low. The Ghana water and Sewerage Coporation(GWSC), a public utility charged with the responsibility, among others, of achieving self financing status however due to lack of political will by the government over the years to institute adequate tariffs devastated the finances of the GWSC(George Akosa,1995).This situation ,coupled with the general declined of Ghana economy,resulted in most of the operational water supply projects being in a poor state of repair of lacking the installed capacity to provide adequate service.We will probably say the government does invest is only the population in Africa growing leading the people in an extreme poverty from 44.6% to 46.4% as shown in ap pendix 4,10. Furthermore, Ghana is reported to be on track to meet the target of halving poverty by 2015(UNESC,2008) it is yet uncertain if sanitation will be met. There is an improvement in the HIV but the deadlock is still unmet in basic sanitation.USAID argued that should the current progress continue as it is now only water and sanitation in all countries will be met by 2015 whiles (UN News Center,2008)secretary general Ban Ki Mo affirm lack of political will will be the biggest obtacle to imrpoving sanitation on world water day. (vandemoortele,2002) ,considering the perceptions incurr by similar reports and journals that government investment is far less.(Ekow.E,2008)demonstrated that special issue of energy policy on energy in Africa with case studies on Zambia, etc explained at least the political will of many governments to improve the quality and quantity of energy services as a prerequisite for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. More significantly, unwill giness of government or political interest in sanitation per say,J.Edgardo campos and sanjay pradhan(2007) found that tackling corruption in the water and sanitation sector in some part of Africa was the primary reason for the MDGs not been on target as stipulated. Osumanu Issaka Kanton in Ghana mentioned African governments, like most countries in the developing world, face daunting tasks in their attempts to provide effective and equitable water and sanitation services for their ever increasing urban population,the paper however, contrasted that since the early 1990s the government of Ghana and many local authorities have entered into various public-private partnerships in urban water and sanitation using Tamale as a case studies where private has done nothing invigorated public sector not have achieved and therefore concluded that there can be no sustainable improvement in water and sanitation provision without political commitment, stakeholder ownership and strong support for co mmunity driven initiatives(2008) 4.Over population Poulation change seen as the major propeling factor for the MDGs in developing country with regards to water and sanitation(UNWPP,2005), (ENS,2008). fig 8 shows summary in the graph. The data from these graph was available from mainly from the estimates an medium variant. USAID monitoring report for 2006 MDGs, for instance, found that family planning practice will enhance the unmet MDGs to achieve the Goals by reducing the size of the targetted population groups which will then lowering the costs of meeting the MDGs in Sub-saharan Africa. Fig 9 table I.1 illustrates the report survey.Untill recently, (Esmarie Swanepoel,2008) publised article detailing africa falling behind on millennium development goals-UN as the proportion of people in sub saharan africa living below poverty decreased from 55.7% in 1990, to 50.3% in 2005. However, because of the population growth, the number of people in the region living in extreme poverty, grew by 100 million over the period. Using the below proj ections, the author (Dr.Jean –C. 2006 ) and others have reported distinct effect population growth has on Sub-sahara in terms of unsafe drinking water and sanitation in meeting the MDGs by the anticipated or stipulated year. Factually, the world health organisation (WHO,2004) annual assessment report substaintiate by saying that the world is on track to meet the drinking water target, but sub-sahara africa lags behind and conflict and political instability is a contributory factor with high rate of population growth and low priority given to water and sanitation will be a mirage. The paper concluded that whats more is the reason been the breakdown of water supply systems in rural africa is of high rates. One of the effective approaches shown to be accetable and helping the progress process drawn by the paper was decentralising responsibility and ownership and providing a choice of service level to communties based on their willingness and ability to pay.Urban population growt h was estimated to increased in growth in developing countries from 1.9 billion to 3.9 billion 2030, averaging 3.2% per year which is a major challenge for achieving MDG sanitation(UNESCO IHE,2007). The diagramme in fig 8 and fig9 indicates the percentage of the population living in major cities. The arguement goes to intensify the fact that water supply and sanitation will be an acute shorter for a decades to come. Source :UNICEF(data online) 5. Conclusion In short this paper looks at the slow progress of Millennium Development Goals with focus in developing countries especially sub saharan africa with respect to water and sanitation and various factors affecting the progress.The article then went further in reviewing various studies and literature presented by authors , analysing other views in the subject area and detailing sanitation situation in the case of Ghana. It was found that the systems of infrastructure has made it difficult for the MDGs team to montior effectively the progress and concrete availability of data was inevitable for correlation in knowing the exact people in sub saharan africa that are not covered as far as water and sanitation is concern. Governments interest in investing much funds in sanitary projects was seen lagging other projects in Africa even like health sectors was seen stampeding such as water sector was progressing steadily as compared to specifically sanitation due to high poverty in some countries and HIV/AIDS among others demanding. Therefore,the was the need for donor organisations to increase aid for the developing world. High population growth and inapproperiate use of low technologies were another contributory constraints in achieving the MDG since the number of populates in african countries was increased drastically by a substantial amount with diseases and malnutrion been high among children 0-5 years of age and rising in birth was due to either unexpected pregnancy or unaware or misapplication of farmily planning medicine at their possession. Skilled labour constraints therefore was one of the impediments that contributed tremendously bad towards the goals of the MDG in wardly due to the fact that skilled migrates leave the developing countries not only for better salaries and rumerations but virtue of better health care systems in developed world. In some cases institutional capacity building was seen as vital challenge for the MDGs in africa which some where in Asia for example Nepal it was much the same similarity. However, despite various studies been carried out by viable institutions and authors with different methods of approaches in addressing the Millennium Development Goals in water and sanitation, the plans has little consistency between different countries , thus making it difficult for policy makers to measure and track progress and so therefore Septentie appraisal of attitudes of stakeholders to the factors limiting progress to MDG. Acknowledgements The Author wish to acknowledge other writers for their assidious and great workdone and for the support provided by Dr.John Williams of Portsmouth University. It is also our pledge to send our sincere gratitude for the University Liberians for their kind gesture and contributions towards and during the literature review session. 8. Reference Summary of reference; JOURNALS PLUS PDFs REPORTS FROM INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS : GOVERNMENT WEBSITES and ICE TWO BOOKS : Marion W. Jenkins and Beth Scott(2007). Behavioural indicators of household decision-making and demand for sanitation and potential gains from social marketing in Ghana. Journal of Social science and medicine,64(2007),2427-2442. Frederick Dubee (2008): Water Aid International-water Aids key facts statistics http://www.clubofrome.org/eng/meetings/winterthur_2008/presentations/Prof_Frederick_Dubee_Wateraid.pdf Christine L. Moe and Richard D. Rheingans (2006). Global challenges in water, sanitation and health. Journal of water and health Vol .04 DFID (2009) factsheets: water and sanitation //www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/mdg-factsheets/water-factsheet-2006.pdf Rebecca S. Et al(2003), Sanitation and the poor: WELL Resource centre Network for water sanitation and environment Health. www.Iboro.ac.uk/WELL Antonio E.(2005),World bank and universite libre de bruxelles: Draft working paper comments welcome. What do we know about sub-saharan africas infrastructure and the impact of its 1990,reform? Vol.4 William Easterly(2007)Global Economy and development working paper 14. How the Millennium Development Goals are unfair to Africa http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Files/rc/papers/2007/11_poverty_easterly/11_poverty_easterly.pdf Mark Pearson,(2009)hlsp institute, technical report paper. Achieving the MDGs:at what cost? http://www.dfidhealthrc.org/what_new/macroecon_health_PearsonFeb09.pdf UNDP(2008).The Millennium Development Goals report: End poverty millennium development goals,make it happen.http://www.undp.org/publications/MDG_Report_2008_En.pdf Peter S.Heller(2005) IMF working paper WP/05/180. Pity the Finance minister issues in managing a substantial Scaling up of Aids Flows. www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2005/wp05180.pdf DESA,(2006).International symposium on international migration and development. Journal number UN/POP/MIG/SYMP/2006/04: International migration and the achievement of MDGs in Africa http://www.uneca.org/sdd/documents/P04_ECA.pdf IICD(2007) Ghana population. www.iicd.org/countries/ghana WEDC,(2004). WELL country note1.1. The poverty millennium development Goal:what water,sanitation and hygiene can do in Ghana. www.Iboro.ac.uk/well/resources/publications/country%20notes/CN1.%20ghana.htm Book: J.Edgardo Campos and Sanjay Pradhan(2007). The many faces of corruption tackling corruption in the water and sanitation sector in Africa-starting dialogue.publish 2007 by world bank. Osumanu Kanton,(2008). Environmental management vol.42 pages 102-110 published july 2008. By springer 233 spring st.New york, Ny10013 USA. Esmarie S.(2008). Africa falling behind UN millennium Goals-UN http://www.polity.org.za/article/africa-falling-behind-on-millennium-development-goals-un-2008-09-12 Dr.Jean et al(2006), powerpoint presentation. The effects of population growth on the achievement of the MDG on child mortality in Urban sub-saharan Africa. www.app-popdevrh.org.uk/publication%20hearings/evidence/jc%20fotso%20oral%20evidence%20paper.ppt Arne B.and Abebe S. (2006). Economic comission of Africa ,policies for growth and poverty reduction in africa:How to reach the Millennium Development Goals. http://www.uneca.org/prsp/cairo/documents/Theme1_Growth.pdf IWA(2008),Global:world water day messages predict MDG problems for Africa. http://www.iwapublishing.com/template.cfm?name=news133 George Essegbey et al (2007),Assessment of community water and sanitation in Ghana. ATPS Working paper series No.45. published by the aAfrican technology Policy studies network. http://www.atpsnet.org/pubs/workingpaper/Working%20Paper%20Series%2045.pdf Ljiljana and Ram(2006). Sustainable Development of water resources , water supply and environmental sanitation. Capacity needs to achieve the UN MDG target 10 in Asia http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/publications/pdfs/32/Rodic-Weirsma.pdf JMP (2008), Core questions on drinking water and sanitation for household surveys. http://www.wssinfo.org/pdf/WHO_2008_Core_Questions.pdf D.P.Maguire(1990). Appropriate development for basic needs. Institution of Civil engineers published by thomas Telford 1991,london p.145water and sanitation Khatri K.B and Vairavamoorthy K. (2007), UNESCO-IHE institute for water education. Challenges for urban water supply and sanitation in the developing countries -Discussion Draft paper.Published in Delft Netherlands www.unescoihe.org/content/download/1016/11873/file/9.paper%20urbanisation%20kala% 20draft.pdf Emmanuel Ekow Asmah(2008). Assessing the links between energy services and the MDGs:Isa MAMs application for Ghana possible? An interim paper presented at the CSAE conference 2008 on Economic Development in Africa at St. Catherines College, Oxford. Trocaire(2005)Dublin. The MDGs:A critical discussion. Trocaire development review ,dublin 2005,pp.43-56 ISSN 0790-9403 http://www.nuigalway.ie/dern/documents/tdr_2005_mdg_a_critical_discussion.pdf UNDP(2007),Policy research brief. Privatising Basic utilities in sub-saharan Africa: The MDG impact. No.3 http://www.undp-povertycentre.org/pub/IPCPolicyResearchBrief3.pdf George Akosa(1995), Efficiency of water-supply and sanitation projects in Ghana. Journal of infrastructure systems vol. 1 paper No. 6118. USAID(2006). Making the case for U.S. International family planning assistance. The contribution of fulfilling the unmet need for family planning. http://www.jhsph.edu/gatesinstitute/_pdf/policy_practice/Papers/MakingtheCase.pdf Erica Usher(2005).The millennium Development Goals and Migration. International organisation for migration research series NO.20 http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/shared/mainsite/published_docs/serial_publications/mrs20.pdf Jan vandemoortele (2002), Are the MDGs Feasible? United Nations Development Programme Bureau for Development Policy. http://www.socialwatch.org/en/acercaDe/beirut/documentos/VANDERMOORTELE.pdf UN(2007).UN news center, UN mark world water day with calls for integrated management of vital resource. http://www.un.org/apps/news/storyAr.asp?NewsID=21951Cr=waterCr1= WHO/UNICEF(2004).Meeting the MDG drinking water and sanitation target: A mid-term assessment of progress. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp04.pdf Khatri K.B. (2007) UNESCO-IHE institute for water Education. Challenges for urban water supply and sanitation in developing countries. Discussion draft paper. www.unesco-ihe.org/content/download/1016/11873/file/9.paper%20isation%20kala%20.pdf Health and Poverty All over the world, the cost of health care is usually quite high. Poor families have worse health conditions than those with higher incomes. Health is paramount for poor people and in most instances, their very environment is a threat to them. Improving environmental conditions including providing water, sanitation and solid waste management services is basic to the creation of sustainable livelihoods and the elimination of poverty. Water related diseases like guinea worm and trachoma still plague portions of West Africa. A person suffering from guinea worm looses a lot of productive farm time which reduces their income. Ghana is currently one of the leading guinea worm endemic countries in the world. Lack of political will biggest obstacle to improving sanitation – Secretary-General 22 March 2008 – A lack of political will remains the greatest obstacle to efforts to drastically reduce the number of people without access to basic sanitation and clean, running water, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said today, calling on the international community to take firmer and faster steps to tackle the problem. If we take up the challenge, the positive impact will reverberate far beyond better access to clean water, Mr. Ban said in a message to mark World Water Day, which is celebrated today. This years Day also coincides with the International Year of Sanitation. Every dollar invested in water and sanitation yields an estimate seven dollars worth of productive activity. And that comes on top of the immeasurable gains in cutting poverty, improving health and raising living standards. The Secretary-General described it as unconscionable that a child dies on average every 20 seconds because of sub-standard sanitation conditions – a situation endured by an estimated 2.6 billion people worldwide, or more than a third of the global population – that are preventable. Poor sanitation combines with a lack of safe drinking water and inadequate hygiene to contribute to the terrible global death toll. Those who survive face diminished chances of living a healthy and productive existence. Children, especially girls, are forced to stay out of school, while hygiene-related diseases keep adults from engaging in productive work. Halving the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation is one of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) devised at a global leaders summit in 2000, but the world is far behind the pace to achieve that by the target date of 2015, Mr. Ban said. Experts predict that by 2015, 2.1 billion people will still lack basic sanitation. At the present rate, sub-Saharan Africa will not reach the target until 2076. This years World Water Day also coincides with the International Year of Sanitation. Population growth, widespread poverty and insufficient investment are among the key obstacles, but the Secretary-General noted that the biggest culprit is the lack of political will. Events are being held around the world this weekend to highlight World Water Day, including the staging of a public toilet queue demonstration to raise awareness about the sanitation crisis around the globe. A similar event was held in New Yorks Central Park on Thursday. Wold bank graphic showing the failure of Africa to meet the MDGs.

Turkey and the European Union :: Turkey Foreign Affairs Europe Essays

Turkey and the European Union Let us begin this by looking at what the EU wants from Turkey. The criteria for EU membership adopted by the Copenhagen European Council in June 1993 require that a candidate country has achieved stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights, and respect for and protection of minorities; has a functioning market economy as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union; and has the ability to take on the obligations of membership, including adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union. Thus we can look at what Turkey is facing now. The main problem that faces Turkey is that it is still not a functioning and stable democracy that has the rule of law, that is respecting human rights and protecting minorities. The sporadic disappearances of people in the custody of the authorities and also the suppression of the right of free press and expression in connection with the Kurdish problem has been a stalemate. Also the EU's concerns about the role of the army in political life have to be addressed. Furthermore, under the democracy and human rights agenda Turkeys not so disturbing actions towards its own Kurdish citizens and their rights in a modern democracy is another tripping stone for it, So a solid problem in connection with government and rule persists. A growing Islamist movement and the continuing gain in popularity of the pro-Islamic political parties is another problem that Turkey faces at home, the European Union not taking too kindly to such orientation inside Turkey. Radicalism of this sort is definitely a minus point in their bid for membership. Here too we see the connection with government and law. This growth of support for such movements may be attributed to the blatant European rejection of Turkey at the Luxembourg summit. People have grown weary of continuous rejection and probably the growth in popularity for the alternative parties an be attributed to such matters. Finally the Turkish economic burden on the EU's budget represents the greatest obstacle for its membership in the union. Once a member Turkey would qualify for assistance from the EU funding bodies and could bankrupt the EU funds for such areas as economic improvement and structural growth. The admission of Turkey would release a flood of economic refugees into the other member states. This is not something that Europe would look forward too.

Comics: A Better Means To An Artistic End Essays -- Argumentative Pers

Comics: A Better Means To An Artistic End If a line of symmetry were to be drawn down the center of the paper, it would seem that each character rests within his environment about to collide with the other. Even without words, a vivid story begins to formulate in my mind, and hopefully I share the artist's vision. Comic book art is the Pez dispenser of modernism. The aesthetics of this accessible medium walk side by side with pop culture. No other art form can reach so many people due to its incredible volume. Each Wednesday of every week brings new issues of titles that have been in circulation for decades. Despite the vast numbers that arrive at retailers each month and the respect they sometimes receive (like Art Speigelman's Pulitzer Prize winning Maus), comics are under appreciated in the literary world, but why? They use a clever organization of symbols to express concepts shared by all people in their own social environment, and provide more tools than conventional art to truly show artistic intention. Comic artists choose to express personal thought with universally complex themes through a symbolic medium. No one refutes the idea that comics do not demonstrate realistic form. Comic artists do not attempt to portray the simple beauty of the natural world; rather, they try to relate a universal idea with a stylistic approach. Magritte's painting of a pipe with the inscription, "this is not a pipe," at the bottom demonstrates the way in which comic books are misunderstood. In his explanation of the art form, Scott McCloud uses pictures of various characters following Magritte's structure. For example, he draws a picture of a cow and states that "this is not a cow" (McCloud 26). The pictures only resemble what we a... ... connection. A conventional expressionist must assume that the observer realizes the purpose of his or her art. Many people see a portrait as just a portrait, when the mood and the intricate detail of the face add to its meaning. Comics, on the other hand, are expected to be symbols enveloped in a detailed history that replaces the wobbling bridge between reader and artist with a strong one suspended by invisible messages from creator to potential viewer, messages anyone can see. Works Cited Carrier, David. The Aesthetics of Comics. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000. Crain, Dale, ed. Batman: Black and White. New York: DC Comics, 1998. McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: Harper Perennial, 1993. Thompson, Don, and Dick Lupoff, eds. The Comic-Book Book. New York: Arlington House, 1973. Comics: A Better Means To An Artistic End Essays -- Argumentative Pers Comics: A Better Means To An Artistic End If a line of symmetry were to be drawn down the center of the paper, it would seem that each character rests within his environment about to collide with the other. Even without words, a vivid story begins to formulate in my mind, and hopefully I share the artist's vision. Comic book art is the Pez dispenser of modernism. The aesthetics of this accessible medium walk side by side with pop culture. No other art form can reach so many people due to its incredible volume. Each Wednesday of every week brings new issues of titles that have been in circulation for decades. Despite the vast numbers that arrive at retailers each month and the respect they sometimes receive (like Art Speigelman's Pulitzer Prize winning Maus), comics are under appreciated in the literary world, but why? They use a clever organization of symbols to express concepts shared by all people in their own social environment, and provide more tools than conventional art to truly show artistic intention. Comic artists choose to express personal thought with universally complex themes through a symbolic medium. No one refutes the idea that comics do not demonstrate realistic form. Comic artists do not attempt to portray the simple beauty of the natural world; rather, they try to relate a universal idea with a stylistic approach. Magritte's painting of a pipe with the inscription, "this is not a pipe," at the bottom demonstrates the way in which comic books are misunderstood. In his explanation of the art form, Scott McCloud uses pictures of various characters following Magritte's structure. For example, he draws a picture of a cow and states that "this is not a cow" (McCloud 26). The pictures only resemble what we a... ... connection. A conventional expressionist must assume that the observer realizes the purpose of his or her art. Many people see a portrait as just a portrait, when the mood and the intricate detail of the face add to its meaning. Comics, on the other hand, are expected to be symbols enveloped in a detailed history that replaces the wobbling bridge between reader and artist with a strong one suspended by invisible messages from creator to potential viewer, messages anyone can see. Works Cited Carrier, David. The Aesthetics of Comics. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000. Crain, Dale, ed. Batman: Black and White. New York: DC Comics, 1998. McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: Harper Perennial, 1993. Thompson, Don, and Dick Lupoff, eds. The Comic-Book Book. New York: Arlington House, 1973.

The Factors that Contribute to Effective Use of iPads with PMLD Pupils

Introduction This chapter will discuss the background, the scope and the need for the present study highlighting the research questions raised that will the study will attempt to answer. The present study focuses on pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD) and how with the use of technology in the form of iPads these pupils can be effectively taught. In other words, what factors can contribute towards the effective use of iPads in Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD) pupils. Background The field of special education and learning has advanced tremendously through the past decades and sub-branches have developed wherein specialists have discovered and realised the various learning disabilities amongst children. Children with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD) present ample challenges for teachers. Technology in this regard has several solutions to offer to aid in effective teaching and learning as a part of effective teaching aid, technology in the form of inventions such as iPads comes to rescue and enable more productive teaching and learning (Davis and Florian, 2004). Pupils need one-to-one help and iPads can allow pupils to refrain from being thrown down on or chewed down on the floor and enable them to stay on the table in the classroom. However, the effective use of iPads remains a question unanswered in the present research literature. Scope of the Study This section will discuss and explain the scope of the study entailing how the conclusions drawn from the findings and the answers of the research questions found will provide implications to improve the practical scenario for teachers dealing with pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD). The present study attempts the fill the gap in literature that exists with regard to the use of iPads in enabling more productive and effective teaching and learning amongst pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD). The implications of the study will allow teachers to practice more effective teaching strategies and improve learning and participation amongst pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD) using iPads. Research Question This section will briefly state the research question that the study will attempt to answer using primary and secondary research findings. The main research question raised in the study is: What are the factors that contribute to effective use of iPads with PMLD pupils? Limitations This section will discuss the limitations of the research in terms of the findings and the implications to be drawn from the research. Literature Review This section will investigate and critically discuss the theoretical underpinnings of the subject area to raise questions regarding the existing literature that are presently unanswered and provide a theoretical framework to allow for answering the research question raised. The literature review of the present study will revolve around the theoretical perspectives on teaching pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD), the teaching strategies adopted based on the existing research findings and developments and the recent technological developments and their involvement in the field of special education. The literature review will point towards the need to investigate the scope of and the use of iPads in special education of pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD) further backed with the theoretical framework supporting the teaching strategies to be embedded in the effective use of iPads in classrooms. The literature review will draw out the usefulness of iPads in the form of the applications that can be utilized in teaching and engaging PMLD pupils in classrooms and then testing this theoretical finding using primary data collection to draw conclusions and implications for teachers. Following this plan of action for the literature review, the chapter will be divided in the following sections: Theoretical Perspectives on PMLD Teaching and Learning In this section of the literature review, the theories related to PMLD teaching will be focused on to develop a background to the existing development in the field and shed light on the aspects that form the foundation of the present study and support the need for further exploration. Effective Teaching Strategies and Tools for PMLD Pupils In this section, the contemporary practice of teaching PMLD pupils will be investigated using secondary information obtained from books and research journals to capture strengths and weaknesses and identity a need for further investigation and development. Applications on iPads for Special Education of Pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD) In this section, the advancements in the technology and how they have come to aid in learning of PMLD pupils will be critically evaluated in this section focusing entirely on iPads. Methodology This chapter will discuss the methodology chosen for the present study and provide justifications for selecting it. Action research strategy is the prime research strategy to be used. Primary as well as secondary sources of data will be used to capture the information required to answer the research question raised. The chapter will discuss and explain what action research entails and provide brief explanations of the primary and secondary sources of information. The chapter will further discuss the sampling technique used and the sample size. Further, the research instrument to be used will also be discussed. Research Strategy The research strategy of action research will be discussed here. Action research involves a practical approach to research inquiry in a social institution (Waters-Adams, 2006). Survey on teachers of 10 special schools using questionnaire will be used to investigate and collect the data and develop engagement profiles with pupils using specific applications. Research Design Primary and secondary sources will be discussed here. Sample Size and Sampling Technique The sample size and sampling technique will be discussed here. Analysis and Discussion This chapter will present, analyse and discuss the findings of the study and draw answers for the research question. Conclusion This chapter will summarize the findings and draw out implications for the teachers to practice more effective teaching strategies and improve learning and participation amongst pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD) using iPads. References Davis, P. and Florian, L. (2004). ‘Teaching strategies and approaches for pupils with special educational needs: A scoping study’. Department for Education and Skills. Available at http://www.education.gov.uk/complexneeds/modules/Module-1.1-Understanding-the-child-development-and-difficulties/All/downloads/m01p010c/II.teaching_strategies%20including_aspects_of_II.pdf. Accessed 3 August 2012. Waters-Adams, S. (2006). Action Research in Education. Faculty of Education Plymouth. The Factors that Contribute to Effective Use of iPads with PMLD Pupils 1. Introduction This chapter will discuss the background, scope and need for the proposed study, highlighting the main questions that the research will address. The research aims to explore how technology can be optimally used to support pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD). Focusing on the Apple iPad, the study will explore how technology might be used to augment the effective teaching of pupils with PMLD by investigating the factors that may contribute towards efficient implementation of such technologies.1.1. BackgroundThe field of special education and learning has advanced tremendously through the decades, and has led to the development of sub-branches of research allowing specialists to discover and understand more about various learning disabilities amongst children. Currently, children with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD) present an ample challenge to modern teaching methods and teachers alike. However, advances in technology have been able to off er several solutions to effective teaching and learning as a part of effective teaching aid. Such technology has included in the invention of tablet devices such as Apple iPads, which are thought to promote more productive teaching and learning (Davis and Florian, 2004). Such pupils require one-to-one help and although plausibly iPads may have a role to play in such support, the factors that contribute to the effective use of iPads remain under researched in the empirical literature.1.2. Scope of the StudyThis section explores the scope of the study, detailing how the conclusions drawn from the findings will have practical implications that may improve teaching practices for teachers dealing with pupils with PMLD. At present, there exists a gap in the emerging literature surrounding the use of technology with pupils with PMLD. Although case studies detailing the utility of iPads in enabling more productive and effective teaching and learning amongst pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD) are beginning to emerge, the area remains under-researched. Little is known about the specific factors that contribute to the effective use of iPads with PMLD pupils. The findings and associated implications of the proposed study will allow teachers to develop and practice the most effective teaching strategies to improve learning and participation amongst PMLD pupils using iPads.1.3. Research QuestionThe main research questions explored in the present study were: Does the use of iPads enhance learning with PMLD pupils? What are the factors that contribute to the effective use of iPads with PMLD pupils?1.4. Study LimitationsAt present the only predicted limitations will be concerned with the practicalities of conducting action research in tandem with normal teaching activities. In order to manage this effectively, a detailed timescale of this research has been formulated.2. Literature ReviewAccording to Boote and Beile (2005), the purpose of a literatur e review is to provide a theoretical underpinning to the area under discussion by critically examining the existing literature surrounding the topic under investigation. Following this rationale, the subsequent section will provide an evaluative report of the subject area, going beyond the descriptive to identify the questions that remain unanswered in the current literature, and provide a theoretical framework to approach the research question under study. The review will revolve around the theoretical perspectives regarding teaching pupils with Profound and Multiple Learning Difficulties (PMLD), the teaching strategies currently adopted based on existing research findings and developments and the recent technological developments and their relevance to the field of special education. The literature review will indicate the need to investigate the scope and use of iPads in special education of pupils with PMLD, backed with a theoretical framework supporting the teaching strategies to be embedded in the effective use of iPads in classrooms. Furthermore, it will identify the effectiveness of iPads in the form of the applications that can be utilised in teaching and engaging PMLD pupils in classrooms. Following this plan of action for the literature review, the chapter will be sub-divided in the following sections:To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us Today1. Theoretical Perspectives on PMLD Teaching and LearningAccording to the Schools’ Census Data (2004), pupils with PMLD are defined as â€Å"†¦(having) complex learning needs. In addition to very severe learning difficulties, pupils have other significant difficulties, such as physical disabilities, sensory impairment or a severe medical condition†. This de finition highlights the complexity of PMLD; it is severe and multi-domain, characterised by the existence of two or more severe impairments that may be visual, physical or sensory, and include other complex medical needs (Healy & Noonan Walsh, 2007). In 2010, the Dfes identified a 29.7% increase in the prevalence of pupils with PMLD between 2002 and 2009, due in part to improved diagnosis and survival rates of pre-term infants with severe disabilities (Marlow, Wolke, Bracewell & Samara, 2005). Pupils with PMLD have greater difficulties in learning, and require a high degree of adult support to meet both their learning and physical needs (DfES, 2004). Practitioners and educators must be able to support such pupils to overcome these barriers to learning, by adapting the curriculum to meet their specific needs. According to the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2007), pupils with PMLD are likely to remain at an early stage of development, with attainment in the early P Scale bet ween P1 to P3, with a focus on developing basic skills throughout the curriculum and across all subjects. Flo Longhorn and Penny Lacey have been working with pupils with PMLD for over ten years, and both advocate a sensory approach to learning. Both authors emphasised the importance for children with PMLD to engage their senses from an early stage, and suggested that the role of practitioner is to stimulate; as effective learning can only take place when such sensory stimulation takes place: â€Å"Without the stimulation and awakening of the senses, it would be difficult for a very special child to begin to make sense of the outside world and begin to learn.† (Longhorn, 2004: p.6)To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us TodaySimilarly, Lacey (2009; 2011) suggested that the PMLD learner requires opportunities to understand, discover and explore through sound, touch, smell, taste and vision. To better understand why learning for PMLD pupils should be sensory requires an exploration of the cognitive processes that are at play. If we consider the early stages of development in normal children, learning is primarily concerned with children forging a connection to the world around them; making sense of it via exploration and investigation using their senses (Longhorn, 2004). This resonates closely with Piaget’s sensorimotor stage, the first stage of cognitive development in his influential theory (Piaget, 1977) whereby infants from birth to two years construct an understanding of the world by coordinating their physical actions with outcomes such as seeing and hearing. Across the two years, a child is expected to progress from reflexive action at birth, to the emergence of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage. According to Cunnigham (2010), PMLD learners at the most severe end of the spectrum function cognitively at six to twelve months of age, therefore an appropriate approach for such learners is to focus methods of teaching at sensory levels.2. Effective Teaching Strategies and Tools for PMLD PupilsAll pupils learn best when they are fully engaged (Iovanne et al., 2003). According to Carpenter (2010), no meaningful learning or outcome will take place without pupil engagement; therefore it is vital that deep engagement from pupils is planned throughout the learning activity. In this sense student engagement can be conceptualised as a reciprocal process; a function of both the time and energy pu pils devote to educationally purposeful activities, and the efforts made by schools to implement effective educational practices (Kuh et al. 2008). Given that engagement is so vital to the success of mainstream educational activities, it stands to reason that such engagement is similarly vital to the success of educational activities with pupils with PMLD. Indeed, Iovannone et al., (2003) stated that degree of engagement was the most important predictor of educational success for pupils with PMLD. Following research conducted by the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust (SSATrust) into effective learning with children with complex learning difficulties, the Engagement Profile and Scale was developed. This is a classroom tool that allows teachers to focus on pupils’ engagement to learning to create personalised pathways of learning, and monitor the effectiveness of classroom interventions (SSATrust). The teacher is required to select an activity with which the pupil is usually highly engaged, and one to which the pupil demonstrates low engagement. During each task, the teacher records the extent to which the pupil demonstrates his or her engagement across a 5-point scale ranging from no engagement to fully sustained engagement across seven domains (awareness, curiosity, investigation, discovery, anticipation, initiation and persistence). Teachers are encouraged to look for small signs of early engagement such as changes in breathing, eye movement, facial expressions or movement. Although in its early stages of classroom intervention, forming part of ongoing research into best practice in classrooms with children with complex educational needs, early case study reports have indicated that the Educational Profile and Scale is an effective tool to devise strategic interventions to encourage re-engagement with learning (Carpenter, Egerton, Brookes & Durdle, 2011).To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us Today2.3. The Specific Use of Technology to Support Learners with PMLDInformation communication technology (ICT) has become a valuable tool for teaching and learning in specialist schools (Davis & Florian, 2004). Condie, Munro, Seagraves and Kenesson (2007) concluded that a substantial body of literature supported the notion that ICT can be a powerful tool to support pupils with educational needs, both in mainstream and specialist environments. Although the studies have tended towards the small scale, findings have elicited common themes included increased communication, improved participation and self-esteem. Ofsted have reported on a number of ways ICT has supported the learning of pupils with additional educational needs, noting improvements to attention span, attitude and motivation, whilst overcoming some of the barriers to learning therefore also increasing attainment (Ofsted 2005; 2004a). The Communications Aid Project (CAP), which was funded from 2002 – 2006 supplied technological aids to pupils with severe communication problems to allow them to more readily access the school curriculum. An evaluation of the project (Wright et al., 2004) noted that the initiative had been well received by parents and pupils alike, with pupils reporting a significant increase in both their abilities and quality of life. The key advantage of ICT lies in its opportunity to provide a personalised learning environment, tailored individually to meet the specific needs of each pupil, but in order for this to be realised, there must be first be a comprehensive and accurate assessment of pupil needs, access and strengths (Handy, 2000). Practically speaking, although ICT can free pupils with limited motor skills or coordination from the problems of manipulating physical materials, physical access to the device itself must be simple to allow pupils to concentrate their efforts on the cognitive task being performed. (Williams, 2005; NOF training manual, 2004). Technology, however, is often introduced to pupils without a full understanding of the benefit it may offer. Florian and Hegarty (2004) suggest that unless teachers fully understand the potential benefits of ICT and the logic behind using such technology, purposeful learning and engagement is limited. The application of ICT, they argue, must begin with the teacher and an understanding of the type of learning they hope to achieve. Teachers must be trained and competent in the use of ICT themselves before they can successfully support its use in pupils with PMLD in overcoming barriers to learning. Furthermore, they must also fully understand the nature of the assessment they would need to conduct in order to fully utlilise the technology. In addition to an adequate assessment of needs and the appropriate use of devices, the third component of successful use of ICT involves the software employed. Sparrowhawk and Heald (2007) outlined criteria for software to ensure it can successfully overcome barriers to learning. They suggested that software should be stimulating and fun, colourful with clear, rich graphics, music and sound, offer immediate feedback with repetition and reward, be challenging and allow pupils to keep trying, but be structured in small steps. Supporting these criteria, Foyle (2012) recently published an article outlining the role of interactive technology in the SEN classroom, describing pupils as most engaged and motivated when applications were visual and contained sound, music and rewards.To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us TodayAn important contributor to the field has been the tablet device, specifically the Apple iPad, a slim, lightweight and multi-touch device for downloading, accessing and interacting with a vast range of applications. To date, little empirical evidence of the effectiveness of the iPad in supporting learning in pupils with PMLD has been conducted and reported, although case studies published by schools that use iPads to support such learners are beginning to emerge. For example, the deputy head teacher at Topcliff School has reported that iPads have had a positive impact and response from their special needs pupils and teachers alike, as the iPad is easy to use, accessible and allows the user to access many well-designed applications, a sentiment shared by the head of music at Mary Elliot Special school, who described the technology as easy to use allowing teachers to feel confident in using ICT, with cheap yet engaging applications. In a blog written by ‘Jwinchester25’ (2012), a head of year in a generic special school for pupils with a range of special educational needs, the iPad is described as a d evice that enables and allows learning at any time, with a wealth of sensory applications that are ideal for learners working between p1 and p2, owing to the visual impact and instant feedback provided by its applications. Undoubtedly, the iPad has several factors that are advantageous in supporting the learning of PMLD pupils, including the range and value of its applications, its sleek and easy to use design, and use of touch technology, which can help overcome barriers for pupils facing issues using the traditional mouse and keyboard (Bean, 2012). However, such advantages come with important caveats; teachers must ensure that the device is both adequately positioned and mounted to optimise both vision and interaction (Watson Hyatt, 2010; Rahman, 2012).To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us Today2.4. ConclusionPupils with PMLD have greater difficulties in learning and have additional impairments in functioning and needs that can create barrie rs to learning. Practitioners and teachers can support pupils to overcome such barriers by providing a learning environment that is stimulating to the senses, and promotes motivation and engagement. The world of technology can augment such learning by enabling pupils with PMLD to communicate and engage with the world around them. However, in order to maximally support such learners, technology must be tailored to the specific and individual needs of each pupil, requiring a thorough and accurate assessment of each pupil’s needs. It would appear that the Apple iPad has great potential to act as a tool for learning for pupils with PMLD, however there remains a gap in the empirical literature regarding the factors that might influence successful use of the iPad in such a teaching environment.1. MethodologyThe following chapter discusses the research methodology chosen for the present study and provides the rationale underpinning its selection. As action research was selected as t he prime research strategy, this chapter will discuss and explain what action research entails and also provide a brief explanation of the data collection methods that will be employed. Furthermore, the chapter will discuss the technique of sample selection and sample size proposed. The chapter will conclude with a discussion of the research instruments that will be utilised to gather the primary data.2. Research StrategyAccording to Lewin (1946), action research is â€Å"a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action (using) a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action†. It involves a practical approach to research inquiry in a social institution (Waters-Adams, 2006), and is perhaps more interactive than other research methodologies, as it balances data collection and analysis with problem solving action in the field. T his is advantageous as it allows the researcher to derive predictions regarding change within the research site (Reason & Bradbury, 2002). It is conceptualised as a collaborative process between the researcher and the research site and population, so it allows not only for observation and reflection, but also action and improvement of practice (Mills, 2006). Action research was particularly appropriate in this context. The author of the present study is an ICT coordinator, and was keen to discover how new technology purchased by the author’s school could be most effectively used with PMLD learners. Action research is often used when a new initiative is about to be implemented, in the absence of knowledge regarding the best method to do so. It allows for the discovery of practical solutions that are directly derived from the specific circumstances of the research site. However, as action research does not involve the objective measurement of phenomena, it can suffer from researcher bias (Mills, 2006). However, all researchers bring a degree of subjectivity shaped by individual experience, and it is the action researcher’s challenge to recognise such bias and build a critical reflexivity into the research process accordingly (Herr & Anderson, 2005). Action research can be time consuming, and difficult to conduct in tandem with normal classroom activities. For this reason, Mills (2006) a dvocates developing a timeline of enquiry.To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us TodayThe timetable for the current study is as follows: Phase 1 (July 2012): Develop research questions. Phase 2 (August 2012): Conducted critical review of relevant literature. Phase 3 (September 2012): Conduct classroom observation. Disseminate questionnaire to second school. Phase 4 (October 2012): Conducted semi-structured interviews with teachers. Phase 5 (November – December 2012): Data collation and analysis Phase 6 (Early 2013): Review, question and action. Disseminate research findings to interested parties.3. Data CollectionAccording to Mills, â€Å"the importance of data collection is to challenge yourself to explore every possible angle to try to find patterns and seek out new understanding among the data† (2006: 122). The selection of data collection methods forms a fundamental step in the research process and should be underpinned by the concepts of reliability and validity. Reliability relates to the accuracy of the data and urges the researcher to consider whether the data they have collected presents an accu rate representation of the reality under study. Validity refers to the essential truthfulness of the data; an assertion that the data collected actually measures the reality under study. Producing high quality research is of particular concern to the action researcher in schools, as the teacher researcher has an additional obligation to their students, and to add to the professional knowledge base (Sagor, 2000). One method of enhancing the quality of research is to triangulate data collection; to use more than one source of data during more than one point in time. The present study included questionnaires, observation and semi-structured interviews. The approach therefore was mainly qualitative, although the inclusion of some closed-ended questions in the questionnaire allowed for some limited quantitative enquiry.4. QuestionnairesThe questionnaire was designed and will be disseminated via Survey Monkey, an online research resource which allows users to design surveys and collect an d analyse data easily. The questionnaire contained both open-ended and closed-ended questions to enable respondents to both answer the specific research questions, and also provide their own responses to add richness to the data. Invitations to participate in this part of the research will be made to members of staff from a different school to the research site, and respondents will be invited to complete the questionnaire via an online link. The questionnaire has been designed specifically to investigate how other schools are integrating iPads into their work with PMLD learners. The main advantage of the questionnaire method is that it potentially allows the researcher to collect a large amount of information in a relatively short amount of time (Mills, 2006). However, the method is notorious for returning lower response rates. Generally speaking, postal survey methods have an average response rate of below 10%, whilst typical response rates for online surveys are a little higher, at 20 – 30% (SurveyMonkey, 2012).5. ObservationThe observations will be conducted only at the primary research site, and will be participatory in nature, as this allows for more focused naturalistic observation (Bell, 2005). In the present study, observation will take place with four pupils with PMLD as they use iPads as part of normal teaching and learning activities. The observations will be guided by the use of the Engagement Profile (SSATrust, 2010) which will enable the researcher to observe exactly which factors involved in the use of iPads engage pupils. For an example of the Engagement Profile observation sheet refer to Appendix A.6. InterviewThe aim of the interview is to elicit information about participant’s attitudes, opinions and perspectives in order to form a meaningful understanding of the phenomena under study (Hannan, 2007). Specifically, this research will include the use of semi-structured interviews, which allow researchers to have a set of specifi c questions to discuss, but allows for some flexibility on the respondents’ behalf. One interview will be conducted with the class teacher, and will address the ways in which iPads are incorporated into teaching activities with PMLD learners.To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us Today1. Sample Size and Sampling Techniques For questionnaire completion, sampling will follow the snowballing technique, a non-probability sampling technique whereby participants in turn recruit future participants from among their acquaintances. In this instance, the link to the online survey will be sent to the target population, with a request that it is passed on to other interested parties. As the likely response rate is as yet unknown, the link will be sent to all possible study participants. The return rate will determine whether any quantitative data analysis will be conducted on the closed-ended survey items. The observations will be limited to four pu pils, who will be identified as appropriate for participation via the researcher’s own knowledge of the pupils within the research site, and via discussions with classroom teachers. Only one interview will be conducted with the classroom teacher. Methods were selected that drew upon small samples to provide an in-depth exploration of the area under study, the number of observations and interviews was restricted to maximise the effectiveness of such in-depth exploration (see Kruger & Casey, 2009 for a discussion regarding sample size when using qualitative methods.7. Ethical ConsiderationsOf prime concern to any researcher, are the ethical considerations and implications of their work. A full understanding of research ethics, and adherence and accountability to an ethical framework can provide a solid base for the research work in order to achieve completion of said research successfully (Willis, Inman and Valenti, 2010). Adherence to ethical considerations in research promote s the aims of research; prohibiting the falsification of results avoids error. Ethical norms ensure that the researcher remains accountable to the public and can prevent harm; therefore prior to the commencement of any piece of research, it is essential to consider all the ethical implications that may present themselves throughout all stages of the study. Central to research ethics is the issue of consent. The proposed study will provide interview participants with a Participant Information Form (PIF) detailing exactly the aims and processes of the research, and the contact details of the researcher. A consent form will be given with the PIF for both the participant and researcher to sign. The form will detail the participants’ right to refuse to participate, and right to withdraw consent at any point during the research, without penalty. As the pupil observations will be conducted as part of normal teaching and learning activities, it is not necessary to seek permission fro m parents.To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us TodayIn a dissertation work, keeping the personal details of the respondents secured is a prime ethical requirement, therefore, another major ethical consideration of the proposed study relates to anonymity and confidentiality. Conducting any research within the workplace could raise concerns among participants; therefore the interviews and Engagement Profiles will be anonymised and assigned codes rather than names. Surveys will be conducted anonymously via SurveyMonkey, access to data will be strictly limited to the researcher, and all participants will have the right to access their own information.ReferencesBean, I. (2012) A helping hand. SEN Magazine, February 2012. Available at: https://www.senmagazine.co.uk/articles/856-how-can-we-make-computers-more-accessible-to-all.html (accessed 13.08.2012). Boote, D.N. & Beile, P. (2005). Scholars before researchers: On the centrality of the dissertation literature review in research preparation. Educational Research 34 (6): 3 – 15. Carpenter, B., Egerton, J., Brooks, T.& Durdle , R. (2011). Engagement in Learning. Available at http://www.education.gov.uk/complexneeds/modules/Module-3.2-Engaging-in-learning—key approaches/All/downloads/m10p080c/Special_Children_Engagement_in_Learning_201_June-July_2011_pg40-42.pdf (accessed 29.08.2012). Condie, R., Munro, B., Seagraves, L. & Kenesson, S. (2007). The impact of ICT in schools – a landscape review. Becta. Cunningham, J. (2010). Profound education: learning and PMLD. SEN magazine, January 2010. Available at: http://www.senmagazine.co.uk/articles/496-profound-education-learning-for-those-with-pmld.html (accessed 29.08.2012) Davis, P. & Florian, L. (2004). Teaching strategies and approaches for pupils with special educational needs: A scoping study. Department for Education and Skills. Available at http://www.education.gov.uk/complexneeds/modules/Module-1.1-Understanding-the-child-development-and difficulties/All/downloads/m01p010c/II.teaching_strategies%20including_aspects_of_II.pdf. (Accessed 03.08 2012). Department of education and early childhood development. (2010). iPads in special education. Available at: http://www.ipadsforeducation.vic.au (accessed 05.08.2012). Department for Education and Skills (2004). Research Report Number 578: Inclusion and Pupil Achievement. DfES Publications, Nottingham. Florian, L. & Hegarty, J. (2004). ICT and Special Educational Needs (Learning Teaching With ICT). 1st Edition. Open University Press. Foyle, A. (2012). Switched on to education. SEN magazine, January 2012. Available at: http://www.senmagazine.co.uk/articles/378-switched-on-to-education-the-use-of-ict-in-sen.html (accessed 29.08.2012) Hannan, A. (2007). Interviews in education research (online) University of Plymouth. Available at: http://www.edu.plymouth.ac.uk/resined/QUESTS/index.htm (Accessed: 03.08.2012). Healy, D., & Noonan Walsh, P. (2007). Communication among nurses and adults with severe and profound intellectual disabilities: Predicted and observed strategies. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities 11(2), 127-141. Herr, K. & Anderson, G. (2005). The Action Research Dissertation: A Guide for Students and Faculty. Sage Publications, CA. Iovannone, R., Dunlap, G., Huber, H. & Kincaid, D. (2003). Effective educational practices for children with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities 18: 150 – 166. jwinchester25 (2012). iPad in a SEN Environment: Some of the uses. Available at: http://senclassroom.wordpress.com/2012/03/17/ipad-in-a-sen-environment-some-of-the-uses/ (accessed 15.08.2012). Kuh, G., Cruce, T., Shoup, R., Kinzie, J. & Gonyea, R. (2008). Unmasking the effects of student engagement on first-year college grades and persistence. Journal of Higher Education, 79 (5): 540–563. Krueger, A., and Casey, M. (2009) Focus groups, a practical guide for applied research (4th edition) Sage, Los Angeles. Lacey, P. (2009). Developing the thinking of learners with PMLD, PMLD Link 21 (2): 15-19. Lacey, P. (2011) A profound challenge. Available at: http://www.senmagazine.co.uk/articles/396-designing-a-curriculum-for-pmld-a-profound-challenge.html (accessed 29.08.2012). Lewin, K. (1946) Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues 2(4): 34-46. Longhorn, F. (1998). A Sensory Curriculum for Very Special People. London: Souvenir Press Ltd. Mary Elliot School (ipad case study, apple site) Available at: http://www.apple.com/uk/education/profiles/mary-elliot/ (accessed 04.08.2012). Marlow,W., Wolke, D., Bracewell, M. & Samara M. (2005). Neurologic and developmental disability at 6 years of age following extremely preterm birth. New England Journal of Medicine 352 (1), 9-19 Mcniff, J. (2003) Action research for professional development: Concise advice for new action research (3rd Edition). Available at: http://www.jeanmcniff.com (Accessed 03.08.2012). Mills, G. E. (2006). Action Research: A Guide for the Teacher Researcher (3rd Edition). Prentice Hall. Ofsted (2004a), Report: ICT in schools – the impact of government initiatives: School Portraits – Eggbuckland Community College. London: Ofsted Ofsted (2005,) Embedding ICT in schools – a dual evaluation exercise. London: Ofsted. Piaget, J. (1977). Gruber, H.E.; Voneche, J.J.. eds. The Essential Piaget. New York: Basic Books. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2007). Marker Training 2007. National curriculum assessments monitoring report. QCA/07/3421 Rahman, S. ( 2012). Getting started: pads for special needs. Rahman Publishing. Reason, P. & Bradbury, H., (2002). The SAGE Handbook of Action Research. Participative Inquiry and Practice. 1st Edition. London: Sage Sagor, R. (2000). Guiding School Improvement with Action Research. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, UK. Sparrowhawk, A. & Heald, Y. (2007). How to Use ICT Effectively With Children With Special Educational Needs. Edition. Learning Development Aids. Waters-Adams, S. (2006). Action Research in Education. Faculty of Education Plymouth. Watson Hyatt, G. (2010). The iPad as an affordable communicator. Initial review May 15. Available at: http://www.doitmyselfblog.com/2010/the-ipad-as-an-affordable-communicator-initial-review/ (accessed 29.08.2012). Williams, P (2005), Using information and communication technology with special educational needs students: The views of frontline professionals. Aslib proceedings: new information perspectives 57 (6): 539–553. Willis, J., Inman, D. & Valenti, R. (2010). Completing a professional practice dissertation: a guide for doctoral students and faculty. IAP. Wright, J, Clarke, M, Donlan, C, Lister, C, Weatherly, H, Newton, C, Cherguit, J and Newton, E (2004). Evaluation of the Communication Aids Project (CAP). London. Available at: DfES. http://www.dfes.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/RR580.pdf (accessed 14.08.2012).To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us Today